автореферат диссертации по истории, специальность ВАК РФ 07.00.15
диссертация на тему: Отношения Пакистана с Советским Союзом и Россией

Текст диссертации на тему "Отношения Пакистана с Советским Союзом и Россией"

МОСКОВСКИЕ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ИНСТИТУТ МЕЖДУНАРОДНЫХ ОТНОШЕНИЙ (УНИВЕРСИТЕТ)

МИД РФ

КАФЕДРА ВОСТОКОВЕДЕНИЯ

Сиддики Ирам

Отношения Пакистана с Советским Союзом и Россией: Основные Факторы и Тенденции (1947-1998)

ДИССЕРТАЦИОННАЯ РАБОТА на соискание ученой степени кандидата исторических наук

Специальность: 07.00.15 - История международных отношений и

внешней политики

Научный руководитель: д.и.н. Белокреницкий В.Я.

Москва, 1999 г.

MOSCOW STATE INSTITUTE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (UNIVERSITY) OF THE RUSSIAN MINISTRY OF FOREIGN AFFAIRS

DEPARTMENT OF ORIENTAL STUDIES

Siddiqui Erum

Pakistan's Relations With The Soviet Union And Russia: Major Factors And Trends (1947-1998)

DISSERTATION For Ph.D Degree

Discipline: 07.00.15 - History of International Relations and

Foreign Policy

Research Advisor: Ph.D V.Ya.Belokrenitsky

Moscow, 1999

CONTENTS

PREFACE.................................................................................................. p.3

CHAPTER ONE (1947-1968)

Pakistan 's foreign policy in search of priorities. The establishment and further development

of Pakistani-Soviet relations......................................................................... p. 13

CHAPTER TWO (1969-1979)

The crises of 1971. The improvement of

ties during the Z.A.Bhutto reign.................................................................... p.51

CHAPTER THREE (1979-1991)

The Afghan issue. Tension in Pakistani-Soviet relations prior to and after the Geneva accord.

The time of lost opportunities....................................................................... p.71

CHAPTER FOUR (1991-1998)

Pakistan and Russia in new global realities.

Main trends of bilateral relations at the present period................................ p.l 11

CONCLUSION..........................................................................................p. 131

REFERENCES.......................................................................................... p. 140

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................... p. 157

APPENDIX ............................................................................................... p. 172

Item 1 The Text of Tashkent Declaration...................................................p. 172

Item 2 The Text of President Nikolai Podgorny's Letter

to President Yahya Khan of April 2, 1971...................................p. 175

Item 3 Excerpts From Afghan Accords Signed in Geneva (1988)...............p. 177

Item 4 Pakistan Steel Mills Corporation Documents..................................p. 186

Item 5 The List of Pakistani Ambassadors to Moscow ..............................p. 188

PREFACE

The Topicality of the Problem

The interest in studying bilateral relations of Pakistan with the Soviet Union and Russia is defined by the place they have been occupying in the contemporary system of international relations and in the foreign policy of the both countries as well. During more than 50 years they remained their unique character demonstrating simultaneously typical and singular examples of a relationship of the Cold War era and afterwards as well. Naming Soviet-Pak relations as typical means first of all that they were initiated and further built in the framework of bipolar international system and hence were to high grade obedient to its compulsions. Though there was a great pragmatic interest in developing relations by the both sides it was relegated to the shadow of geopolitical and strategic considerations of that time.

The uncommon feature of Pakistani-Soviet relations is that they have been more advanced in the field of trade and economic cooperation while political contacts experienced much lower pace and good will. The ties of Pakistan with Russia may be reckoned odd on the contrary reason - economic cooperation has been definitely left behind the progress in political sphere which got free of the burden of the Cold War imperatives.

The topicality of the research is also added by the aspects dealing with the policy of Pakistan and Russian Federation in the region which lays between them -Afghanistan and Central Asia. As at present Pakistani-Russian relations are at the stage of stagnation the study is designated to analyze the reasons of that predicament as well as the factors driving the whole complex of interaction between the countries and its prospect in the future.

In the context of international politics Pakistani-Russian relations take special meaning in the light of the rapid and overt nuclearization of the Southern Asian region with a sensitive threat to destabilize the situation on the globe. The non-

proliferation and monitoring mechanism functioning on the base of multilateral agreements in the framework of international organizations seems inefficient in conditions, emerged after the crash of bipolar system. In that situation the role of bilateral ties between Pakistan and Russia as a member of the UN Security Council may appear extremely important and decisive in preventing the region's slipping to the conflict.

The Background of The Problem and The Objectives of The Study

The dissertation studies the relations of Pakistan with the Soviet Union and Russia at the length of the 50-years historical period - from 1947 through 1998. The work traces the events of diplomatic contacts between the countries, investigates the major stages of bilateral relations, analyses the goals and activity of the main Pakistani political forces guiding the foreign strategy of the country, overlooks objective and subjective reasons which have been impeded the growth of mutual cooperation. A special emphasize is made on assessing the principle trends which impacted upon the evolution of the ties between Pakistan and the Soviet Union/Russia. They are studied in three dimensions - in the sphere of bilateral cooperation, in the aspects dealing with the regional situation in the Middle East and South Asia and in the framework of global politics. External factors which influenced upon forming relations of Pakistan with the Soviet Union and Russia - Kashmir, Pushtunistan and Afghan issues, Indo-Pak rivalry, the policy of the U.S. and other Western countries are also examined.

The research objectives of the dissertation are as follows:

• To study various factors and trends determining Pakistan's relations with the Soviet Union and Russia.

• To specifically single out the stages of bilateral relations and key issues dominating on each stage. To trace the dynamics from issue to issue, and from one period of relationship to another.

• To put relationship between the two countries in the framework of the Pakistani policy and its internal and external changes as well as impacts.

• To analyze the regional and global determinants of Pakistani policy towards the Soviet Union and Russia and of the Soviet/Russian policy towards Pakistan.

• To overlook the actual obstacles on the way of development of Pakistani-Russian relations.

• To fill the vacuums left in the study of some aspects related to the Pakistan relations with the Soviet Union/Russia.

Novel Features of the Research

For the first time the period of more than fifty years of Pakistani-Soviet/Russian relationship has been analyzed. The new aspect is that bilateral relations of Pakistan with the Soviet Union and Russia are placed in a broader framework of regional and global political situation. The chronology that was suggested and developed in the dissertation is also an authentic one.

The research uses a remarkable number of untried first hand sources - newly published works of Pakistani political figures participated in forming the foreign policy of the country. An extremely wide range of Pakistani and Indian press materials was also covered. For the first time such a broad base of Russian sources and literature has been consulted by a Pakistani scholar.

The original feature of the study is that it was carried out with the approaches of Pakistani school of historical and political science research. Many questions of Pakistan's relations with the Soviet Union and Russia are presented through the vision of a Pakistani scholar and hence are fresh and more relief prompting to review traditional cliché and stereotypes. It is important to stress that the author tried to avoid any extreme assessments of the acute points in Pakistani-Soviet/Russian relations. The dissertation asserts critical analysis of Pakistan's foreign policy which, as the author presumes, suffered the lack of flexibility in those episodes which required

more constructive and balanced stand, for instance in the Afghan issue after the signing of Geneva accord.

The Method of The Research and The Structure of The Dissertation

Methodologically the dissertation is a narrative research undertaken on the basis of analysis of historical stages of Pakistani-Soviet/Russian relations. The study is focused on the issues of the highest priority and importance which dominated in each period and formed the structure of Pakistani-Soviet/Russian relations. This method enables to trace enduring trends of bilateral ties as well as to investigate the key factors of each stage which determined that dynamics.

The objectives of the study and the method of the research dictated the composition of the work. The chapters are grouped on chronological principle. It is important to emphasize that defining the stages of relations of Pakistan with the Soviet Union and Russia is a difficult problem since they were highly uneven in some periods of time. For instance the second half of the 1950-s and the 1960-s witnessed inconsistent tendencies in bilateral ties. Ups were alternating with downs and vice versa, so that the pivotal trend in the development of relations between the countries can scarcely be rendered precise.

The dissertation suggests the structure of the research which consists of four chapters: (1) 1947-1968 - Pakistan's foreign policy in search of priorities. The establishment and further development of Pakistani-Soviet relations; (2) 1969-1979 -The crises of 1971. The improvement of ties during the Z.A.Bhutto reign; (3) 19791991 - The Afghan issue. Tension in Pakistani-Soviet relations prior to and after the Geneva accord. The time of lost opportunities; (4) 1991-1998 - Pakistan and Russia in new global realities. Main trends of bilateral relations at the present period.

The dissertation contains preface, 4 chapters, conclusion, bibliography and an appendix which provides materials illustrating some turning points in the relations between Islamabad and Moscow.

The Analysis of The Sources and The Literature

The historical character of the research required to use a wide range of Soviet/Russian, Pakistani, Western as well as Indian archival and library resources. Russian data banks provided a great portion of material without using which the whole study would have been barely possible. Valuable documents referring to the initial period of establishment of relations between Pakistan and the Soviet Union were found in the Foreign Policy Archive of the Russian Federation (Na referenture Pakistana, 1948, opis 1, papka 1, delo 2, listy 1, delo 4, listy 5, delo 6, listy 23,24; 1953, opis 6, papka 4, delo 6, listy 1,4, delo 7, listy 3,4,5,44,52,90,91,132). They included diplomatic correspondence between the Foreign Offices of the countries in preparation of the exchange of ambassadors which took place in 1949. Especially interesting facts were revealed dealing with unrealized visit of Liaquat Ali Khan to Moscow in summer-fall 1949 which had been much invigorated by the Soviet leadership and backed by the then Pakistani ambassador in Teheran Raja Gazanfar Ali. Soviet archival documents of that time number a lot of translations of Pakistani press materials dated by late 1940-s - early 1950-s. Though they were not directly used in the thesis they witness of vigorous interest of the Soviet foreign policy institutions in the situation inside and around Pakistan in the first years of its independence.

The Soviet and Russian sources related to the later period of Islamabad-Moscow ties are represented by statements and interviews by the Soviet/Russian top policy makers which touched the theme of bilateral contacts. In post-Soviet period these statements appeared sporadically reflecting the low intensity of Pakistani-Russian relations. During his visit to Islamabad in 1991 the then Russian vice-president A.V.Rutskoy declared a pro-Pakistani shift in Russian stand on Kashmir issue. That gesture was obviously to prompt the Pakistani side to animate efforts in

resolution of Afghan issue. However any remarkable progress was not made and further visits of Russian officials to Pakistan didn't exceed protocol program.

Pakistani and Indian portion of the sources used during the work on the dissertation is notably voluminous. Essential to comprehend the decision-making mechanism of Pakistan's foreign policy appeared the records of the parliamentary debates which took place at Pakistan Constituent Assembly in 1950-56 and at Pakistan National Assembly in 1962-67.

An informative pieces of information were found in the memoirs and autobiographies of Pakistani eminent personalities directly involved into the history of developments of Pakistan-Soviet/Russian relations - General Ayub Khan, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Benazir Bhutto, Wali Khan, Sardar Shaukat Hyat Khan, Qudratullah Shahab, General Niazi. Some of these editions have been recently published (for instance Khan, Shaukat. Hyat, The nation that lost its soul, Lahore, Jang publishers, 1995, Khan, A.A. Niazi, The Betrayal of East Pakistan, Karachi, Oxford university press, 1998) and are of first grade value to recreate the atmosphere of the period under examination and to make an effort to incorporate as many diverse points of views as possible.

The professional literature devoted to the various questions of Pakistani-Soviet/Russian relations forms a profound basis for research. Extensive part of it was contributed by Soviet and Russian authors. The questions of Pakistani foreign policy at the initial period of Pakistan's sovereignty were studied in details by Y.V.Gankovsky in a number of articles and in a capital work "Istorya Pakistana", Moscow, 1961 (co-author L.R. Gordon-Polonskaya) which was later translated and published in English - "History of Pakistan", Lahore, 1964.

The perspectives of Pakistani-Soviet economic cooperation which emerged after the visit of A.N.Mikoyan to Pakistan in 1956 required a substantial expertise on the various angles of Pakistani economy. That research got vital importance in the 1960-70-s when the trade and economic cooperation between the countries grew to remarkable scale and a number of large Soviet-assisted projects including the

construction of a Steel Mill near Karachi had been started. Since the second half of the 1950-s through the 1980-s the Soviet scholars A.Zmeyev, F.A.Trinich, V.Rastyannikov, S.Kuzmin, S.Levin, V.Y.Belokrenitsky, I.V.Zhmuyda, S.N.Kamenev and others produced an impressive number of works devoted to the analysis of Pakistan's economy, its foreign trade and economic ties. Special attention in these works was paid to Pakistani-Soviet trade and economic cooperation.

The first monograph on the foreign policy of Pakistan was created by R.M. Mukimdjanova in 1961 (Mukimdjanova, R.M., Política SSHA v Pakistane, Moscow, 1961). It was followed by two books of the same-author - "Mukimdjanova, R.M., Pakistan, Yuzhnaya Asia i Politica SSHA, Moscow, 1974" and "Mukimdjanova, R.M., Pakistan i Imperialisticheskiye Dergavi, Moscow, 1984". Another scholar who contributed a lot to the research of Pakistan's foreign policy, its ties with the Soviet Union and Russia is V.N.Moskalenko (see his comprehensive work "Vneshnaya Politika Pakistana. Osnovnyie Etapy Razvitiya, M., 1976).

The first study devoted particularly to Pakistani-Soviet relations was the book by I.M.Kompantsev "Pakistan i Sovetsky Soyuz", Moscow, 1970. and the Soviet Union, went out of print. The author pioneered in defining the periods of bilateral ties and provided a number of important inferences. He pointed out that Pakistan though allying with the West, never had any significant disputable issues with the Soviet Union and nor official statements of Pakistani leaders neither the steps of the Pakistani government showed animosity towards the Soviet side. Estimating the book by I.M.Kompantsev it should be taken into account that it was prepared when the relations between the countries developed in the uptrend. Nevertheless the above-said conclusion of the author may be admitted as in the later period as well Pakistani leadership despite political turns and twists expressed interest in friendly relations with the Soviet Union and Russia.

In 1984 a collective monograph edited by I.V.Khlevinsky went out of print ("SSSR i Pakistan", Moscow, 1984). The main emphasize in the study was given to economic cooperation which had become especially active since the second half of

the 1960-s. The analysis of the Afghan issue which early in the 1980-s was already in full swing took only few pages of the book.

The questions dealing with Pakistan's foreign policy and its relations with the Soviet Union and Russia were specifically highlighted in three handbooks on Pakistan published in 1966, 1977 and 1991.

The Russian research on Pakistan is based on the strong experience gained at the Soviet period. A large edition of Pakistan's Encyclopedia is scheduled for 1999. There were numerous articles on Pakistan, its foreign policy and ties with Russia published in the 1990-s. Two issue of "Asia and Africa Today" journal were entirely devoted to that scope of problems (N 12, 1996 and N 8, 1997), as well as a memorial collection dedicated to 100-years anniversary of the founder of Pakistan M.A.Jinnah (1997). A special interest of Russian scholars in Pakistan originates from the role it plays in Afghan issue. That's why Pakistan's foreign policy is also under investigation in works on Afghanistan (for instance "Afghanistan: Problemy Voyni i Mira", Moscow, 1998). Besides it presentations made by Russian specialists at the conferences should be mentioned as well as contributions to the editions published in the West (see "Soviet and American Relations with Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran", N.Y., 1987; "Domestic Determinants of Soviet Foreign Policy Towards South Asia and the Middle East", L., 1990).

In Pakistan during all historical periods there was a significant interest in the state of relations with the Soviet Union and Russia. Articles analyzing the question of bilateral contacts regularly appeared in press. Pakistani policy makers in official statements and declarations paid attention to those aspects of international politics which were in the orbit of Moscow's interest and influence. M.Ayub Khan and Z.A.Bhutto devoted parts of own books to relations with the Soviet Union (see bibliography).

Political concern was followed by scholarly inquiry and in 1988 the first (and the only so far) special monograph on Pak-Soviet ties was published in Pakistan (M.Papotia, Pakistan's Relations with the Soviet Union. Constraints and Compulsions,

University of Karachi, 1988). It depicts the full picture of bilateral relations up to the middle of 1980-s, investigates the factors which formed them and limits which didn't let them develop in a proper pace (for instance contradictions on Afghan issue). Underscoring economic cooperation between the countries the author however doesn't make an accent on a quite unique situation when economic assistance to Pakistan was provided by a state which pursued the policy directly opposing Pakistani priorities in Afghanistan.

Valuable materials witnessing of the anti-Soviet activity of Pakistani intelligence service were found in the memoirs by the former chief of the ISI division Brigadier M.Yousaf (Brig.M.Yousaf and Major M.Adkin. "The Bear Trap. Afghanistan's Untold Story", Lahore, 1992). An interesting and informative piece of work which produces a major contribution to understanding of a crucial moment in the Cold War, the Soviet intervention as well the United Nation role in bringing about the withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan is the book by the former UN General Secretary Special Representative D.Cordovez and renowned American political science specialist S.S.Harrison. (D.Cordovez and S.S.Harrison, "Out of Afghanistan", N.Y., 1995).

A special place in the research on Soviet-Pakistan relations carried out in the West is occupied by a book by American historian and political scientist (a Pakistani by origin) Hafeez Malik (H.Malik. "Soviet-Pakistan Relations and Post-Soviet Dynamics, 1947-92", L., 1994). This work provides a comprehensive and in depth study of various aspects of the Soviet-Pak ties. The author covers a wide range of problems endeavoring to explain the trends and dynamics of bilateral relations on the basis of the Soviet and Pakistani foreign policy priorities. The obvious drawback of the book is that the author didn't properly use the sources and literature published in the USSR. The limits within which H.Malik observed the Afghan issue seems also insufficient as the factor of the U.S. active participation in Afghan war dropped out of the study. The work would be definitely more embracing if it has analyzed the interests of Pakistan as a regional power late in the 1980-s - early in the 1990-s.

Scholarly and Practical Meaning of The Study

The material and inferences of the dissertation portray the mature picture of Pakistan's relations with the Soviet Union and Russia, covering more than half a century period. The carried out research asserts that political potential for flexibility and compromise which were successfully probated in the relations between the countries during the gloomy Cold War period has definitely not impaired nowadays. The model of bilateral relations which proved to be viable in the world affected by the East-West confrontation does have good prospect to be beneficial today and in the future. The dire need for Pakistan to develop ties with Russia is commanded by the interests of border security and economic cooperation. The role of Russia is of the highest grade of importance for resolution of the Afghan issue whish threatens the stability inside Pakistan.

The research undertaken in the dissertation forms a solid basis for a long-term forecast which can be done as a separate study. The thesis may be used to prepare lectureship materials on the history of foreign policy and international relations of post-WWII period.

Probation of The Work

The basics of the dissertation were presented by the author at the international memorial conference dedicated to 100 anniversary of M.A.Jinnah (Institute of Oriental Studies, Moscow, 1996) and at the international seminar "Pakistan South Asia at the Edge of XXI c." (Institute of Oriental Studies, Moscow, 1998).

CHAPTER ONE 1947-1968

Pakistan's Foreign Policy in Search of Priorities.

The Establishment and Further Development of Pakistani-Soviet Relations

The World War II drew the line under more than 100-year British colonial rule in South Asia. The British went home leaving the Indian subcontinent under the heavy burden of the prolong and highly intense Hindu-Muslim dispute. [1] In 192040 violent Hindu-Muslim rioting all over India took place which Ambedkar labeled as "20 years of civil war between the Hindus and the Muslims of India".[2] Early in the 1940-s the "two nation" theory by M.A.Jinnah made a breakthrough in proving that the Indian population may consist of different creeds and different nationalities. It formed a strong ideological support for a Muslim appeal for a separate state which gained particular momentum in 1945

The near prospect for the British to quit brought about an acute and essential question whether power should be transferred to India as one unit, which was the Congress' stand point, or to two independent countries, which was the Muslim demand. After trying hard to avoid the division of existing India, the viceroy, Lord Mountbatten, concluded that the movement for Pakistan was irresistible and thus on August 15, 1947 the two sovereign states - India and Pakistan emerged. Pakistan comprised the two predominantly Muslim areas in the North-West and in the NorthEast of the subcontinent, more than 3500 kilometers away from each other, having different languages, economy level and cultural values.

Immediately after the partition there were innumerable problems which caused massive upheavals in the both countries. There was a heavy influx of Muslim refugees to Pakistan as well as Hindus to India. Some half a million people were killed, and not less than fourteen million crossed the international borders. Pakistan, having received 1.7 million more refugees than India had a much greater

problem of rehabilitation. The traumatic days of partition undoubtedly left behind deep scars on both sides. Nehru said, that the question of Indo-Pak relationship was difficult to deal with because it was "a psychological thing" resulting from the division of the subcontinent. There was "a complete emotional upset of all the people in the region".[3]

Actually the nature and complexity of the communal problem in the subcontinent prior to 1947 are well known. What is important is to note that the Soviet leaders tended to attribute the Hindu-Muslim problem in India generally to the British imperial Divide & Rule strategy. [4] Obviously, they could not lend support to "two nation" theoiy as it conflicted with the Marxist approach to defining a nation as a historically evolved, stable community of language, territory, economic life, psychological makeup and culture".[5] The Soviet Union was contemptuous of the Muslim League because it threatened to weaken the national movement for liberation from the British imperialism. These views were shared largely by the Communist Party of India. It excepted the credentials of the Indian National Congress as the "nationalist" organization of all India and condemned the Muslim League for its secretarian outlook and religious dogma. It held, in common with other secular political organizations in the country that India should be preserved as a single and unified entity. [6]

The Soviet vision of the future development on the subcontinent was probably much closer to the Hindus expectations that the partition was only a temporary necessity. Jawaharlal Nehru in his broadcast of June 3, 1947 said: "It may be that in this way we shall reach that united India sooner than otherwise".[7] Azad has written that Sardar Patel was "convinced that the new state of Pakistan was not viable and could not last".[8] He thought the acceptance of Pakistan would teach the Muslim league a bitter lesson and Pakistan would collapse in a short time.

However Pakistan managed to ruin all skeptical predications and soon after the emergence got down to the state formation process. On that way Pakistan faced

a challenge of carrying out a critical transition from an Empire's margin to a sufficient sovereign entity integrated into the system of international relations. That endeavor required to consider a great deal of internal and external aspects ranging from economic development to security environment and global situation.

At the very beginning of independence Pakistan faced the hard task of setting up a new administration. The Foreign office was initially headed by Mohammed Ikramullah. Liaquat Ali Khan the first prime minister of Pakistan, also served as the first foreign minister. In December 1947 Sir Zafarullah Khan was appointed to this post.

An American writer was amazed to find that in 1947 the entire Pakistani Foreign office had only one typewriter. [9] The ministry was allotted two residential villas in Karachi, several miles away from the rest of the governmental offices. The lack of equipment made the job almost impossible. Pakistani embassies were correspondingly short staffed, even in London and Washington. One Pakistani diplomat recalled how the first Washington embassy was run on a shoe string budget from two rooms in a Washington hotel, with the Ambassador drawing no salary. [10]

Pakistan was at a disadvantageous position in the military sphere as India withheld Pakistan's share of military supplies. The division of the army was made all the more difficult by the fact that there was no exclusively Muslim units in the British Indian army. Pakistan was eventually given one third of the due army supplies and surplus military stores.[ll] The division of the military stores also proved bitter in her initial dealings with Nehru and the new Indian government. Instead of the promised one the third Pakistan received less than half of that and what she did received was mostly invalid stuff. Ayub Khan, later to be the Commander in chief of the army President of Pakistan recalled how "the position was so bad that for the first few years we could only allow five rounds of practice ammunition to each man a year".[12]

After Pakistan and India came to the final agreement on Pakistan's share in the cash of undivided India and the reserve bank of India in January 1948 transferred the funds (5000 million Rupees), Pakistan used a large part of her sterling reserves and foreign currency earnings to equip the defense force. The government expenditure on defense in the years immediately after independence averaged at nearly 70%.[13]

T